Carboxylic Acids Derivatives

Alkyl Halides to Carboxylic Acids

There are two main strategies we can use to convert alkyl halides to carboxylic acids: 1) Oxidizing the carbon connected to the halogen, 2) Introducing the COOH group, thus increasing the length of the carbon chain: For the … Read more

Categories Carboxylic Acids Derivatives Leave a comment

Esters to Ketones

by Dr. S. Gevorg

The Problems in Converting Esters to Ketones Esters are carbonyl compounds susceptible to nucleophilic additions, and one may think of converting them to ketones using Grignard, organolithium, or organocuprate reagents. However, the problem with those is that Grignard and organolithium … Read more

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Organic Chemistry Study Guides

Structure and Bonding

Lewis Structures in Organic Chemistry
Valency and Formal Charges in Organic Chemistry
How to Determine the Number of Lone Pairs
Bonding Patterns in Organic Chemistry
sp3, sp2, and sp Hybridization in Organic Chemistry with Practice Problems
How to Quickly Determine The sp3, sp2, and sp Hybridization
Bond Lengths and Bond Strengths
VSEPR Theory – Molecular and Electron Geometry of Organic Molecules
Dipole-dipole, London Dispersion and Hydrogen Bonding Interactions
Dipole Moment and Molecular Polarity
Boiling Point and Melting Point in Organic Chemistry
Boiling Point and Melting Point Practice Problems
Solubility of Organic Compounds
General Chemistry Overview Quiz

Molecular Representations

Bond-Line or Skeletal Structures
Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry with Practice Problems
Bond-line, Lewis, and Condensed Structures with Practice Problems
Curved Arrows with Practice Problems
Resonance Structures in Organic Chemistry with Practice Problems
Rules for Drawing Resonance Structures
Major and Minor Resonance Contributor
How to Choose the More Stable Resonance Structure
Drawing Complex Patterns in Resonance Structures
Localized and Delocalized Lone Pairs with Practice Problems
Molecular Representations Quiz

Acids and Bases

Acids and Bases – General Chemistry
Organic Acids and Bases
Organic Acid-Base Mechanisms
Acid Strength and pKa
How to Determine the Position of Equilibrium for an Acid-Base Reaction
Inductive and Resonance (Mesomeric) Effects
Factors That Determine the pKa and Acid Strength
How to Choose an Acid or a Base to Protonate or Deprotonate a Given Compound
Lewis Acids and Bases
Basicity of Amines
Organic Acids and Bases Practice Problems
Organic Acids and Bases Quiz

Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

Naming Alkanes by IUPAC Nomenclature Rules Practice Problems
Naming Bicyclic Compounds
Naming Bicyclic Compounds-Practice Problems
How to Name a Compound with Multiple Functional Groups
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Carbon Atoms in Organic Chemistry
Constitutional or Structural Isomers with Practice Problems
Degrees of Unsaturation or Index of Hydrogen Deficiency
The Wedge and Dash Representation
Sawhorse Projections
Newman Projections with Practice Problems
Staggered and Eclipsed Conformations
Conformational Isomers of Propane
Newman Projection and Conformational Analysis of Butane
Newman Projection of Chair Conformation
Gauche Conformation
Gauche Conformation, Steric, Torsional Strain Energy Practice Problems
Ring Strain
Steric vs Torsional Strain
Conformational Analysis
Drawing the Chair Conformation of Cyclohexane
Ring Flip: Drawing Both Chair Conformations with Practice Problems
1,3-Diaxial Interactions and A value for Cyclohexanes
Ring-Flip: Comparing the Stability of Chair Conformations with Practice Problems
Cis and Trans Decalin
IUPAC Nomenclature Practice Problems
IUPAC Nomenclature Summary Quiz
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes Practice Quiz

Stereochemistry

How to Determine the R and S Configuration
The R and S Configuration Practice Problems
What is Nonsuperimposable in Organic Chemistry
Chirality and Enantiomers
Diastereomers-Introduction and Practice Problems
Enantiomers vs Diastereomers
Cis and Trans Isomers
E and Z Alkene Configuration with Practice Problems
Enantiomers, Diastereomers, the Same or Constitutional Isomers with Practice Problems
Configurational Isomers
Optical Activity
Specific Rotation
Racemic Mixtures
Enantiomeric Excess (ee): Percentage of Enantiomers from Specific Rotation with Practice Problems
Symmetry and Chirality. Meso Compounds
Fischer Projections with Practice Problems
R and S Configuration in the Fischer Projection
R and S configuration on Newman projections
R and S Configuration of Allenes
Converting Bond-Line, Newman Projection, and Fischer Projections
Resolution of Enantiomers: Separate Enantiomers by Converting to Diastereomers
Stereochemistry Practice Problems
Stereochemistry Practice Quiz

Energy Changes In Organic Chemistry

Energy and Organic Chemistry Reactions
Bond Lengths and Bond Strengths
Homolytic and Heterolytic Bond Cleavage
The Heat of Reaction from Bond Dissociation Energies

Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions

Introduction to Alkyl Halides
Nomenclature of Alkyl Halides
Substitution and Elimination Reactions
Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions – An Introduction
All You Need to Know About the S_N2 Reaction Mechanism
The S_N2 Mechanism: Kinetics, Thermodynamics, Curved Arrows, and Stereochemistry with Practice Problems
The Stereochemistry of S_N2 Reactions
Stability of Carbocations
The S_N1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction
Reactions of Alkyl Halides with Water
The Stereochemistry of the S_N1 Reaction Mechanism
The S_N1 Mechanism: Kinetics, Thermodynamics, Curved Arrows, and Stereochemistry with Practice Problems
Steric Hindrance in S_N2 and S_N1 Reactions
Carbocation Rearrangements in S_N1 Reactions with Practice Problems
Ring Expansion Rearrangements
Ring Contraction Rearrangements
When Is the Mechanism S_N1 or S_N2?
Reactions of Alcohols with HCl, HBr, and HI Acids
SOCl₂ and PBr₃ for Conversion of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides
Alcohols in S_N1 and S_N2 Reactions
How to Choose Molecules for Doing S_N2 and S_N1 Synthesis-Practice Problems
Exceptions in S_N2 and S_N1 Reactions
Nucleophilic Substitution and Elimination Practice Quiz
Reactions Map of Alkyl Halides

Alkenes: Structure, Stability, and Nomenclature

Alkenes: Structure and Stability
Naming Alkenes by IUPAC Nomenclature Rules
Cis and Trans Isomers
E and Z Alkene Configuration with Practice Problems

Elimination Reactions

Substitution and Elimination Reactions
The E2 Mechanism
E2 Elimination Practice Problems
Zaitsev's Rule - Regioselectivity of E2 Elimination Reactions
The Hofmann Elimination of Amines and Alkyl Fluorides
Stereoselectivity of E2 Elimination Reactions
Stereospecificity of E2 Elimination Reactions
S_N2 and E2 Rates of Cyclohexanes
Elimination Reactions of Cyclohexanes with Practice Problems
POCl₃ for Dehydration of Alcohols
The E1 Mechanism with Practice Problems
Regioselectivity of E1 Reactions
Stereoselectivity of E1 Reactions
How to tell if it is E2 or E1 Mechanism
S_N1 vs E1 Reactions
S_N2 vs E2 Reactions
Dehydration of Alcohols by E1 and E2 Elimination
Mesylates and Tosylates as Good Leaving Groups
Mitsunobu Reaction
S_N1 S_N2 E1 E2 – How to Choose the Mechanism
Polar Protic and Polar Aprotic Solvents
S_N1 S_N2 E1 or E2 - the Largest Collection of Practice Problems
The Hammond Postulate
The E1cB Elimination Mechanism
Nucleophilic Substitution and Elimination Practice Quiz
Reactions Map of Alkyl Halides

Addition Reactions of Alkenes

Electrophilic Addition Reactions to Alkenes
Markovnikov's Rule
Markovnikov's Rule with Practice Problems
Addition of Water to Alkenes
Acid-Catalyzed Hydration of Alkenes with Practice Problems
Rearrangements in Alkene Addition Reactions
Oxymercuration-Demercuration
Addition of Alcohols to Alkenes
Free-Radical Addition of HBr: Anti-Markovnikov Addition
Hydroboration-Oxidation: The Mechanism
Hydroboration-Oxidation of Alkenes: Regiochemistry and Stereochemistry with Practice Problems
Halogenation of Alkenes and Halohydrin Formation
The Regiochemistry of Alkene Addition Reactions
The Stereochemistry of Alkene Addition Reactions
Cis product in an anti-Addition Reaction of Alkenes
Ozonolysis of Alkenes with Practice Problems
Syn Dihydroxylation of Alkenes with KMnO₄ and OsO₄
Anti-Dihydroxylation of Alkenes with MCPBA and Other Peroxides with Practice Problems
Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes with KMno₄ and O₃
Alkene Reactions Practice Problems
Changing the Position of a Double Bond
Changing the Position of a Leaving Group
Alkenes Multi-Step Synthesis Practice Problems
Alkene Addition Reactions Practice Quiz
Reactions Map of Alkenes

Alkynes

Introduction to Alkynes
Naming Alkynes by IUPAC Nomenclature Rules - Practice Problems
Preparation of Alkynes by Elimination Reactions
Hydrohalogenation of Alkynes
Addition of Water to Alkynes
Acid-Catalyzed Hydration of Alkynes with Practice Problems
Reduction of Alkynes
Halogenation of Alkynes
Hydroboration-Oxidation of Alkynes with Practice Problems
Ozonolysis of Alkynes with Practice Problems
Alkylation of Terminal Alkynes in Organic Synthesis with Practice Problems
Reactions of Acetylide Ions
Alkyne reactions summary practice problems
Alkyne Synthesis Reactions Practice Problems
Alkyne Naming and Reactions Practice Quiz
Reactions Map of Alkynes

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

NMR Spectroscopy – An Easy Introduction
NMR Chemical Shift
NMR Chemical Shift Range and Value Table
NMR Number of Signals and Equivalent Protons
Homotopic, Enantiotopic, Diastereotopic, and Heterotopic
Homotopic Enantiotopic Diastereotopic Practice Problems
Integration in NMR Spectroscopy
Splitting and Multiplicity (N+1 rule) in NMR Spectroscopy
NMR Signal Splitting N+1 Rule Multiplicity Practice Problems
¹³C Carbon NMR
DEPT NMR: Signals and Problem Solving
NMR Spectroscopy-Carbon-Dept-IR Practice Problems

Organic Structure Determination

NMR Spectroscopy-Carbon-Dept-IR Practice Problems
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy Practice Problems
Solving Mass Spectrometry Practice Problems

Radical Reactions

Free-Radical Addition of HBr: Anti-Markovnikov Addition
Initiation, Propagation, Termination in Radical Reactions
Selectivity in Radical Halogenation
Stability of Radicals
Resonance Structures of Radicals
Stereochemistry of Radical Halogenation with Practice Problems
Allylic Bromination by NBS with Practice Problems
Radical Halogenation in Organic Synthesis

Reactions of Alcohols

Nomenclature of Alcohols: Naming Alcohols based on IUPAC Rules with Practice Problems
Preparation of Alcohols via Substitution or Addition Reactions
Reaction of Alcohols with HCl, HBr, and HI Acids
Mesylates and Tosylates as Good Leaving Groups
SOCl₂ and PBr₃ for Conversion of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides
Alcohols in Substitution Reactions Practice Problems
POCl₃ for Dehydration of Alcohols
Dehydration of Alcohols by E1 and E2 Elimination
The Oxidation States of Organic Compounds
LiAlH4 and NaBH4 Carbonyl Reduction Mechanism
Alcohols from Carbonyl Reductions - Practice Problems
Grignard Reaction in Preparing Alcohols with Practice Problems
Grignard Reaction in Organic Synthesis with Practice Problems
Protecting Groups For Alcohols in Organic Synthesis
Oxidation of Alcohols: PCC, PDC, CrO₃, DMP, Swern, and All of That
Diols: Nomenclature, Preparation, and Reactions
NaIO4 Oxidative Cleavage of Diols
The Pinacol Rearrangement
The Williamson Ether Synthesis
Alcohol Reactions Practice Problems
Naming Thiols and Sulfides
Reactions of Thiols
Alcohols Quiz – Naming, Preparation, and Reactions
Reactions Map of Alcohols

Ethers and Epoxides

Preparation of Epoxides
Ring-Opening Reactions of Epoxides
Reactions of Epoxides under Acidic and Basic Conditions
Reactions of Epoxides Practice Problems
The Grignard Reaction of Epoxides
Naming Ethers
The Williamson Ether Synthesis
Reactions of Ethers-Ether Cleavage

Conjugated Systems

Resonance and Conjugated Dienes
Allylic Carbocations
1,2 and 1,4 Electrophilic Addition to Dienes
Kinetic vs Thermodynamic Control of Electrophilic Addition to Dienes

The Diels-Alder Reaction

Diels-Alder Reaction: Dienes and Dienophiles
Predict the Products of the Diels-Alder Reaction with Practice Problems
Endo and Exo Products of Diels-Alder Reaction with Practice Problems
Regiochemistry of the Diels–Alder Reaction with Practice Problems
Identify the Diene and Dienophile of the Diels-Alder reaction with Practice Problems
Diels-Alder Reaction in Organic Synthesis Practice Problems